Статья
Патологические изменения сетчатки глаза при сердечно-сосудистых заболеваниях и сахарном диабете
Цель. В работе анализируются данные современной литературы (опубликованные с 2005 по 2020 г.) о поражении сетчатки при сердечно-сосудистых заболеваниях (ССЗ) и сахарном диабете. Повреждения сосудистого русла сетчатки и зрительного нерва в современном мире представляют актуальную проблему ввиду существенной распространенности, тяжести необратимых повреждений сетчатки, приводящих к инвалидизации, и в связи с коморбидностью с ССЗ.Методы. Выполнен поиск исследований по тематике работы с 2005 по 2020 г. Использовались электронные базы данных Академии Google (https://scholar.google.ru/), PubMed (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/), eLIBRARY.ru (https://www.elibrary.ru/) и зарубежных и отечественных журналов, посвященных кардиологии, терапии и офтальмологии.Результаты. Анализ литературы показал, что атеросклеротическое поражение микрососудистого русла сетчатки является достоверным фактором риска острого коронарного синдрома, инфаркта миокарда и мозгового инсульта (МИ). Однако вопрос о тождественности атеросклеротических процессов, протекающих в сосудистом русле сетчатки и в периферических артериях, остается открытым. Гипертензивная ретинопатия (ГР) имеет убедительную связь с МИ, хронической сердечной недостаточностью (ХСН) и смертностью от ишемической болезни сердца (ИБС), подтвержденную в крупных популяционных исследованиях ARIC и Rotterdam Study. Дискутабельным остается вопрос о прогностической значимости ГР в зависимости от ее степени. Имеются последовательные данные о связи ГР с ИБС и ХСН. Диабетическая ретинопатия (ДР) является нейроваскулярным осложнением сахарного диабета. В преимущественно клинических работах представлены свидетельства значения ДР как маркера риска МИ, диабетической периферической нейропатии, кардиальной автономной нейропатии, утолщения комплекса «интима–медия» каротидных артерий, микроальбуминурии. Ряд других крупных клинических работ не показал достоверной ассоциации ДР с МИ. Существенным недостатком изучения связи ДР с ССЗ является дефицит популяционных исследований по данной тематике.Заключение. Несмотря на современные методы диагностики и достаточно большое количество исследований сосудистого русла глаза и сетчатки, сведения об их связи с ССЗ остаются недостаточными и противоречивыми, что обусловлено ограниченным объемом выборок, вариабельностью оценок и сложностью патогенеза атеросклероза и ССЗ. Исследование ассоциаций ССЗ с патологией сетчатки в российской популяции с применением автоматических систем оценок микрососудистого русла предоставляет уникальную возможность преодоления ряда противоречивых аспектов и получения новых данных.
1. World Health Organization. Global diffusion of eHealth: making universal health coverage achievable: report of the third global survey on eHealth. World Health Organization, 2017.
2. Ho H., Cheung C.Y., Sabanayagam C., Yip W., Ikram M.K., Ong P.G., Mitchell P., Chow K.Y., Cheng C.Y., Tai E.S., Wong T.Y. Retinopathy signs improved prediction and reclassification of cardiovascular disease risk in diabetes: a prospective cohort study. Sci. Rep. 2017; 7(1): 1–8. doi:10.1038/srep41492
3. Cheung C.Y.L., Tay W.T., Ikram M.K., Ong Y.T., De Silva D.A., Chow K.Y., Wong T.Y. Retinal microvascular changes and risk of stroke: the Singapore Malay Eye Study. Stroke. 2013; 201344 (9): 2402– 2408. doi: 10.1161/STROKEAHA.113.001738
4. Wagner S.K., Fu D.J., Faes L., Liu X., Huemer J., Khalid H., Ferraz D., Korot E., Kelly C., Balaskas K., Denniston A. K., Keane P. A. Insights into systemic disease through retinal imaging-based oculomics. Translat. Vision Sci. & Technol. 2020; 9 (2): 6–6. doi: 10.1167/tvst.9.2.6
5. Жданов В.С., Дробкова И.П., Галахов И.Е. Эпидемиологические морфологические исследования атеросклероза. Кардиол. вестн. 2015; 10 (1): 52–57. [Zhdanov V.S., Drobkova I.P., Galakhov I.E. Epidemiologicheskie i morphologicheskie issledovaniya aterosclerosa. Cardiologicheskii vestnik. 2015; 10 (1): 52–57 (In Russ.)].
6. Ma Y.H., Leng X.Y., Dong Y. Xu W., Cao X.P., Ji X., Wang H.F., Tan L., Yu J.T. Association of MR-proadrenomedullin with cardiovascular risk factors and subclinical cardiovascular disease. Atherosclerosis. 2013; 228 (2): 451–459. doi: 10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2018.12.015
7. Chandra A., Seidelmann S.B., Claggett B.L., Klein B.E., Klein R., Shah A.M., Solomon S.D. The association of retinal vessel calibres with heart failure and longterm alterations in cardiac structure and function: the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities (ARIC) Study. Eur. J. Heart Failure. 2019; 21 (10): 1207–1215. doi: 10.1002/ejhf.1564
8. Crosby-Nwaobi R., Heng L.Z., Sivaprasad S. Retinal vascular calibre, geometry and progression of diabetic retinopathy in type 2 diabetes mellitus. Ophthalmologica. 2012; 228 (2): 84–92. doi: 10.1159/000337252
9. Myers C.E., Klein R., Knudtson M.D., Lee K.E., Gangnon R., Wong T.Y., Klein B.E.K. Determinants of retinal venular diameter: the Beaver Dam Eye Study. Ophthalmology. 2012; 119 (12): 2563–2571. doi: 10.1016/j.ophtha.2012.06.038
10. Klein R., Myers C., Knudtson M. Relationship of blood pressure and other factors to serial retinal arteriolar diameter measurements over time: the Beaver Dam Eye Study. Arch. Ophthalmol. 2012; 130 (8): 1019–1027. doi: 10.1001/archophthalmol.2012.560
11. Sun R., Liu D., Zhou Q., Sun R., Liu D., Zhou Q. A review of the carotid artery stenosis and ocular ischemic disease from the perspective of integrative medicine. In Integrative Ophthalmology. Springer, Singapore, 2020. doi: 10.1007/978-981-13-7896-6
12. Hafner J., Zierfuss B., Schernthaner G.H., SchmidtErfurth U. From the eye into the foot? Atherosclerosis. 2020; 294: 41–43. doi: 10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2019.12.007
13. Bertelli P.M., Pedrini E., Guduric-Fuchs J., Peixoto E., Pathak V., Stitt A.W., Medina R.J. Vascular regeneration for ischemic retinopathies: Hope from cell therapies. Curr. Eye Res. 2020; 45 (3): 372–384. doi: 10.1080/02713683.2019.1681004
14. Elwood K.F., Taboada J.L., Wong R.W. Ocular ischemic syndrome with congenital absence of internal carotid artery. J. VitreoRetinal Diseases. 2020; 4 (1): 79–83. doi: 10.1177/2474126419866136
15. Sun R., Liu D., Zhou Q. A review of the carotid artery stenosis and ocular ischemic disease from the perspective of integrative medicine. Integrative Ophthalmology. Singapore: Springer, 2020. 133–136. doi: 10.1007/978-981-13-7896-6
16. Kang H.M., Choi J.H., Koh H.J., Lee S.C. Kang H.M., Choi J.H., Koh H.J., Lee S.C. Significant changes of the choroid in patients with ocular ischemic syndrome and symptomatic carotid artery stenosis. PloS One. 2019; 14 (10). doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0224210
17. Hayreh S.S. Acute retinal arterial occlusive disorders. Prog. in Retinal and Eye Res. 2011; 30 (5): 359–394. doi: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2011.05.001
18. Olsen T., Pulido J. On behalf of the American Academy of Ophthalmology referred Practice Pattern Retina/Vitreous Panel. Retinal and Ophthalmic Artery Occlusions Preferred Practice Pattern. Ophthalmology. 2016; 124: 120–143. doi: 10.1177/2474126419866136
19. Biousse V., Nahab F., Newman N.J. Management of acute retinal ischemia: follow the guidelines! Ophthalmology. 2018; 125 (10): 1597–1607. doi: 10.1016/j.ophtha.2018.03.054
20. Chang Y.S., Chu C.C., Weng S.F., Chang C., Wang J.J., Jan R.L. The risk of acute coronary syndrome after retinal artery occlusion: a population-based cohort study. Br. J. Ophthalmol. 2015; 99 (2): 227–231. doi: 10.1136/bjophthalmol-2014-305451
21. Park S.J., Choi N.K., Yang B.R., Park K.H., Lee J., Jung S.Y., Woo S.J. Risk and risk periods for stroke and acute myocardial infarction in patients with central retinal artery occlusion. Ophthalmology. 2015; 122 (11): 2336–2343. doi: 10.1016/j.ophtha.2015.07.018
22. Lee J., Kim S.W., Lee S.C., Kwon O.W., Kim Y.D., Byeon S.H. Co-occurrence of acute retinal artery occlusion and acute ischemic stroke: diffusion-weighted magnetic resonance imaging study. Am. J. Ophthalmol. 2014; 157 (6): 1231–1238. doi: 10.1016/j.ajo.2014.01.033
23. Sharma R.A., Newman N.J., Biousse V. New concepts on acute ocular ischemia. Curr. Opinion in Neurol. 2019; 32 (1): 19–24. doi:10.1097/WCO.0000000000000634
24. Katz D.M., Trobe J.D. Is there treatment for nonarteritic anterior ischemic optic neuropathy. Curr. Opinion in Ophthalmol. 2015; 26 (6): 458–463. doi: 10.1097/ICU.0000000000000199
25. Lee M.S., Grossman D., Arnold A.C., Sloan F.A. Incidence of nonarteritic anterior ischemic optic neuropathy: increased risk among diabetic patients. Ophthalmology. 2011; 118 (5): 959–963. doi: 10.1016/j.ophtha.2011.01.054
26. Callizo J., Feltgen N., Pantenburg S., Wolf A., Neubauer A.S., Jurklies B., Wachter R., Schmoor C., Schumacher M., Junker B., Pielen A. Cardiovascular risk factors in central retinal artery occlusion: results of a prospective and standardized medical examination. Ophthalmology. 2015; 122 (9): 1881–1888. doi: 10.1016/j.ophtha.2015.05.044
27. Giambene B., Sodi A., Sofi F., Marcucci R., Fedi S., Abbate R., Prisco D., Menchini U. Evaluation of traditional and emerging cardiovascular risk factors in patients with non-arteritic anterior ischemic optic neuropathy: a case-control study. Graefe's Arch. for Clin. and Exp. Ophthalmol. 2009; 247 (5): 693–697. doi: 10.1007/s00417-008-0981-6
28. Cestari D.M., Gaier E.D., Bouzika P., Blachley T.S., De Lott L.B., Rizzo J.F., Wiggs J.L., Kang J.H., Pasquale L.R., Stein J.D. Demographic, systemic, and ocular factors associated with nonarteritic anterior ischemic optic neuropathy. Ophthalmology. 2016; 123 (12): 2446–2455. doi: 10.1016/j.ophtha.2016.08.017
29. Hayreh S.S., Zimmerman M.B. Non-arteritic anterior ischemic optic neuropathy: role of systemic corticosteroid therapy. Graefe's Arch. for Clin. and Exp. Ophthalmol. 2008; 246 (7): 1029–1046. doi: 10.1007/s00417-008-0805-8
30. Williams B., Mancia G., Spiering W., Rosei E. A., Azizi M., Burnier M., Clement D., Coca A., De Simone G., Dominiczak A., Kahan T., Mahfoud F., Redon J., Ruilope L., Zanchetti A., Kerins M., Kjeldsen S., Kreutz R., Laurent S., Desormais I. 2018 ESC/ESH Guidelines for the management of arterial hypertension. Kardiologia Polska (Polish Heart Journal). 2019; 77 (2): 71–159. doi: 10.1080/08037051.2018.1527177
31. Cuspidi C., Sala C., Grassi G. Updated classification of hypertensive retinopathy: which role for cardiovascular risk stratification? J. Hypertens. 2015; 33 (11): 2204–2206. doi: 10.1097/HJH.0000000000000733
32. Ambresin A., Borruat F.X. Hypertension and the eye. Rev. Med. Suisse. 2015; 11 (499): 2366–2368. PMID: 26852552
33. Ahn S.J., Woo S.J., Park K.H. Retinal and choroidal changes with severe hypertension and their association with visual outcome. Invest. Ophthalmol. & Visual Sci. 2014; 55 (12): 7775–7785. doi: 10.1167/iovs.14-14915
34. Keith N.M. Some different types of essential hypertension: their course and prognosis. Am. J. Med. Sci. 1974; 268: 336–345. doi: 10.1097/00000441-197412000-00004
35. Wong T.Y., Mitchell P. Hypertensive retinopathy. New Engl. J. Med. 2004; 351 (22): 2310–2317. doi: 10.1056/NEJMra032865
36. van den Born B.J.H., Hulsman C.A.A., Hoekstra J.B.L., Schlingemann R.O., van Montfrans G.A. Twenty five year follow-up for breast cancer incidence and mortality of the Canadian National Breast Screening Study: randomised screening trial. BMJ. 2014; 348: g366. doi: 10.1136/bmj.331.7508.73
37. Mancia G., Fagard R., Narkiewicz K., Redon J., Zanchetti A., Böhm M., Christiaens T., Cifkova R., de Backer G., Dominiczak A., Galderisi M., Grobbee D.E., Jaarsma T., Kirchhof P., Kjeldsen S.E., Laurent S., Manolis A.J., Nilsson P.M., Ruilope L.M., Wood D.A. 2013 ESH/ESC Practice guidelines for the management of arterial hypertension: ESH-ESC The Task Force for the management of arterial hypertension of the European Society of Hypertension (ESH) and of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC). Blood Press. 2014; 23 (1): 3–16. doi: 10.1097/01.hjh.0000431740.32696.cc
38. Spence J.D., Fraser J.A. Retinal vasculature: a window on the brain. Hypertension. 2013; 62 (4): 678– 679. doi: 10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA.113.01519
39. Heringa S.M., Bouvy W.H., van den Berg E., Moll A.C., Kappelle L.J., Biessels G.J. Associations between retinal microvascular changes and dementia, cognitive functioning, and brain imaging abnormalities: a systematic review. J. Cereb. Blood Flow. Metab. 2013; 33 (7): 983–995. doi: 10.1038/jcbfm.2013.58
40. Hanff T. C., Sharrett A. R., Mosley T. H., Shibata D., Knopman D.S., Klein R., Klein B.E.K., Gottesman R.F. Retinal microvascular abnormalities predict progression of brain microvascular disease: an atherosclerosis risk in communities magnetic resonance imaging study. Stroke. 2014; 45 (4): 1012–1017. doi: 10.1161/strokeaha.113.004166
41. Lindley R.I., Wang J.J., Wong M.C., Mitchell P., Liew G., Hand P., Wardlaw J., de Silva D.A., Baker M., Rochtchina E., Chen C., Hankey G.J., Chang H.M., Fung V.S., Gomes L., Wong T.Y. Retinal microvasculature in acute lacunar stroke: a crosssectional study. Lancet Neurol. 2009; 8 (7): 628–634. doi: 10.1016/S1474-4422(09)70131-0
42. Wieberdink R.G., Ikram M.K., Koudstaal P.J., Hofman A., Vingerling J.R., Breteler M. Retinal vascular calibers and the risk of intracerebral hemorrhage and cerebral infarction: the Rotterdam Study. Stroke. 2010; 41 (12): 2757–2761. doi: 10.1161/STROKEAHA.110.599084
43. Liew G., Wong T.Y., Mitchell P., Cheung N., Wang J.J. Retinopathy predicts coronary heart disease mortality. Heart. 2009; 95 (5): 391–394. doi: 10.1136/hrt.2008.146670
44. Wong T.Y., Rosamond W., Chang P.P., Couper D.J., Sharrett A.R., Hubbard L.D., Folsom A.R., Klein R. Retinopathy and risk of congestive heart failure. JAMA. 2005; 293 (1): 63–69. doi: 10.1001/jama.293.1.63
45. Liu Y., Yang J., Tao L., Lv H., Jiang X., Zhang M., Li X. Risk factors of diabetic retinopathy and sightthreatening diabetic retinopathy: a cross-sectional study of 13 473 patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus in mainland China. BMJ Open. 2017; 7 (9): e016280. doi: 10.1136/bmjopen-2017-016280
46. International Diabetes Federation. IDF Dia-betes Atlas 2019; Available from: http://www.diabetesatlas.org/
47. Antonetti D.A., Klein R., Gardner T.W. Diabetic retinopathy: seeing beyond glucose-induced microvascular disease. Diabetes. 2006; 55 (9): 2401–2411. doi: 10.1056/NEJMra1005073
48. Yau J.W.Y., Rogers S.L., Kawasaki R., Lamoureux E.L., Kowalski J.W., Bek T., Chen S.-J., Dekker J.M., Fletcher A., Grauslund J., Haffner S., Hamman R.F., Kamran Ikram M., Kayama T., Klein B.E.K., Klein R., Krishnaiah S., Mayurasakorn K., O’hare J.P., Wong T.Y. Global prevalence and major risk factors of diabetic retinopathy. Diabetes Care. 2012; 35 (3): 556– 564. doi: 10.2337/dc11-1909
49. Wong T.Y., Cheung C.M.G., Larsen M., Sharma S., Simó R. Diabetic retinopathy. Nat. Rev. Dis. Primers. 2016; 2: 1–16 doi: 10.1038/nrdp.2016.12
50. Simó R., Hernández C. European Consortium for the Early Treatment of Diabetic Retinopathy (EUROCONDOR) Neurodegeneration in the diabetic eye: new insights and therapeutic perspectives. Trends Endocrinol. Metab. 2014; 25 (1): 23–33. doi: 10.1016/j.tem.2013.09.005
51. Simó R., Stitt A.W., Gardner T.W. Neurodegeneration in diabetic retinopathy: does it really matter? Diabetologia. 2018; 0061 (9): 1902–1912. doi: 10.1007/s00125-018-4692-1
52. Solomon S.D., Chew E., Duh E.J., Sobrin L., Sun J.K., VanderBeek B.L., Wykoff C.C., Gardner T.W. Diabetic retinopathy: a position statement by the American Diabetes Association. Diabetes Care. 2017; 40 (3): 412–418. doi: 10.2337/dc16-2641
53. Алгоритмы специализированной медицинской помощи больным сахарным диабетом. Под ред. И.И. Дедова, М.В. Шестаковой, А.Ю. Майорова. 9-й вып. М.: УП ПРИНТ, 2019. [Algoritmy spetsializirovannoi meditsinskoi pomoshchi bol’nym sakharnym diabetom. Pod red. I.I. Dedova, M.V. Shestakovoi, A.Yu. Maiorova. 9-i vypusk. M.: UP PRINT, 2019. (In Russ.).] doi: 10.14341/DM221S1
54. Zhao Q., Zhou F., Zhang Y., Zhou X., Ying C. Fasting plasma glucose variability levels and risk of adverse outcomes among patients with type 2 diabetes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Diabet. Res. and Clin. Pract. 2019; 148: 23–31. doi: 10.1016/j.diabres.2018.12.010
55. Prospective D.U.K. Study Group. Tight blood pressure control and risk of macrovascular and microvascular complications in type 2 diabetes: UKPDS 38. BMJ: British Medical Journal. 1998; 317 (7160): 703. PMCID: PMC28659
56. Diabetes Control and Complications Trial Research Group. The effect of intensive treatment of diabetes on the development and progression of long-term complications in insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. New Engl. J. Med. 1993; 329 (14): 977–986. doi: 10.1056/NEJM199309303291401
57. Nordwall M., Abrahamsson M., Dhir M., Fredrikson M., Ludvigsson J., Arnqvist H.J. Impact of HbA1c, followed from onset of type 1 diabetes, on the development of severe retinopathy and nephropathy: the VISS Study (Vascular Diabetic Complications in Southeast Sweden). Diabetes Care. 2015; 38 (2): 308–315. doi: 10.2337/dc14-1203
58. DCCT Research Group. Early worsening of diabetic retinopathy in the diabetes control and complications trial. Arch. Ophthalmol. 1998; 113: 874–886. doi: 10.1001/archopht.116.7.874
59. Henricsson M., Nilsson A., Janzon L., Groop L. The effect of glycaemic control and the introduction of insulin therapy on retinopathy in non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. Diabetic Med. 1997; 14 (2): 123– 131. doi: 10.1002/(SICI)1096-9136(199708)14:83.0.CO;2-4
60. Roysarkar T.K., Gupta A., Dogra M.R., Dash R.J. Effect of insulin therapy on progression of retinopathy in noninsulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. Am. J. Ophthalmol. 1993; 115 (5): 569–574. doi: 10.1016/s0002-9394(14)71452-7
61. Casson R.J., Wood J.P.M., Osborne N.N. Hypoglycaemia exacerbates ischaemic retinal injury in rats. British J. Ophthalmol. 2004; 88 (6): 816–820. doi: 10.1136/bjo.2003.024661
62. Pearce I., Simó, R., Lövestam-Adrian M., Wong D.T., Evans M. Association between diabetic eye disease and other complications of diabetes: implications for care. A systematic review. Diabetes, Obesity and Metabolism. 2019; 21 (3): 467–478. doi: 10.1111/dom.13550
63. Kostev K., Jockwig A., Hallwachs A., Rathmann W. Prevalence and risk factors of neuropathy in newly diagnosed type 2 diabetes in primary care practices: a retrospective database analysis in Germany and UK. Primary Care Diabetes. 2014; 8 (3): 250–255. doi: 10.1016/j.pcd.2014.01.011
64. Lin I.C., Wang Y.H., Lin C.L., Chang Y.J., Lee S.H., Wang I.J. Diabetic polyneuropathy and the risk of developing diabetic retinopathy: a nationwide, population-based study. Acta Ophthalmol. 2015; 93 (8): 713–718. doi: 10.1111/aos.12746
65. Huang C.C., Lee J.J., Lin T.K., Tsai N.W., Huang C.R., Chen S.F., Lu C.H., Liu R.T. Diabetic retinopathy is strongly predictive of cardiovascular autonomic neuropathy in type 2 diabetes. J. Diabet. Res. 2016. doi: 10.1155/2016/6090749
66. Voulgari C., Psallas M., Kokkinos A., Argiana V., Katsilambros N., Tentolouris N. The association between cardiac autonomic neuropathy with metabolic and other factors in subjects with type 1 and type 2 diabetes. J. Diabet. Complicat. 2011; 25 (3): 159–167. doi: 10.1016/j.jdiacomp.2010.06.001
67. Pemp B., Palkovits S., Howorka K., Pumprla J., Sacu S., Garhöfer G., Bayerle-Eder M., Schmetterer L., Schmidt–Erfurth U. Correlation of retinal neurodegeneration with measures of peripheral autonomic neuropathy in type 1 diabetes. Acta Ophthalmol. 2018; 96 (7): e804–e810. doi: 10.1111/aos.13733
68. Li L.X., Li M.F., Lu J.X., Jia L.L., Zhang R., Zhao C.C., Ren Y., Tu Y.F., Shen Y., Liu F., Bao Y.Q., Jia W.P. Retinal microvascular abnormalities are associated with early carotid atherosclerotic lesions in hospitalized Chinese patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. J. Diabet. Complicat. 2014; 28 (3): 378–385. doi: 10.1016/j.jdiacomp.2014.02.004
69. Prospective D.U.K. Study Group. Tight blood pressure control and risk of macrovascular and microvascular complications in type 2 diabetes: UKPDS 38. BMJ: British Medical Journal. 1998; 317 (7160): 703. PMC28659
70. Liu Y., Yang J., Tao L., Lv H., Jiang X., Zhang M., Li X. Risk factors of diabetic retinopathy and sightthreatening diabetic retinopathy: a cross-sectional study of 13 473 patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus in mainland China. BMJ Open. 2017; 7 (9): e016280. doi: 10.1136/bmjopen-2017-016280
71. Chou A.Y., Liu C.-J., Chao T.-F., Wang K.-L., Tuan T.-C., Chen T.-J., Chen S.-A. Presence of diabetic microvascular complications does not incrementally increase risk of ischemic stroke in diabetic patients with atrial fibrillation: a nationwide cohort study. Medicine. 2016; 95 (27). PMC5058804
72. Hägg S., Thorn L., Forsblom C., Stroke D.G. Different risk factor profiles for ischemic and hemorrhagic stroke in type 1 diabetes mellitus. Stroke. 2014; 45 (9): 2558–2562. doi: 10.1161/STROKEAHA.114.005724
73. Juutilainen A., Lehto S., Ronnemaa T., Pyorala K., Laakso M. Retinopathy predicts cardiovascular mortality in type 2 diabetic men and women. Diabetes Care. 2007; 30 (2): 292–299. doi: 10.2337/dc06-1747
74. Brownrigg J.R.W., Hughes C.O., Burleigh D., Karthikesalingam A., Patterson B.O., Holt P.J., Thompson M.M., de Lusignan S., Ray K.K., Hinchliffe R.J. Microvascular disease and risk of cardiovascular events among individuals with type 2 diabetes: a populationlevel cohort study. The Lancet Diabet. Endocrinol. 2016; 4 (7): 588–597. doi: 10.1016/S2213-8587(16)30057-2
75. Karlberg C., Falk C., Green A., Sjølie A.K., Grauslund J. The role of lean process improvement in implementation of evidence-based practices in behavioral health care. J. Behavior. Health Servic. Res. 2015; 42 (4): 504–518. doi: 10.1007/s00592-011-0304-y